These are passive and active movements. Passive movement uses energy whereas active movement consumes energy in the form of ATP. Simple diffusion, the random movements of molecules from area of high concentration to the area of low concentration. Example air in alveoli of lung b. Facilitated diffusion, larger molecules, which are not soluble in lipid need protein channel to pass through the plasma membrane.
No direct energy needed. Example: - Amino acid passes through the cell membrane. Osmosis, a special type of diffusion referring to the passage of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to lower water concentration.
Filtration, small molecules pass through selectively permeable membrane in response to force of pressure. Example: - filtration in the kidney in the process of urine formation. Active movements across membranes Substances move through a selectively permeable membrane from areas of low concentration on side of a membrane to an area of higher concentration on the other side.
This is against concentration gradient. Therefore, it requires energy. This process requires the use of ATP. One example of such processes is Sodium — potassium pump and calcium pump. In this process all follows similar process. It includes: Pinocytoss — cell drinking Receptor — mediated Endocytosis- Endocytosis with the help of receptor. Phagocytosis- cell eating. It is thick semi transparent, elastic fluid containing suspended particles and a series of minute tubules and filaments that form cytoskeleton.
It also contains solid components, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and inorganic substances. The majority of organic substances however are found as colloids. Colloids are particles that remain suspended in the surrounding medium.
Contain the hereditary factor in the cell. Most cell contain single nucleus but some like matured Red Blood cell do not contain. However Muscle cell contain several nucleuses. The nucleus separated from other cell structure by double membrane called nuclear membrane.
Pores over the nuclear membrane allow the nucleus to communicate with the cytoplasm. In the nucleus a jelly like fluid that fill the nucleus is karylymph neucleoplasm , which contain the genetic material called chromosome. Nucleus also contain dark, somewhat spherical, non-membrane bound mass called nucleolus.
It is continuous with the nuclear membrane. It involved in intracellular exchange of material with the cytoplasm. Various products are transported from one portion of the cell to another via the endoplasmic reticulum. So it is considered as intracellular transportation. It is also storage for synthesized molecules. Endoplasmic reticulum ER is divided in to two. These are, granular E.
Containing granule and involving in synthesis of protein and agranular E. It consist membranous sacs. It generates energy. Each mitochondria posses two membrane, one is smooth upper membrane and the other is arranged with series of folds called cristae.
The central cavity of a mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane is the matrix. The lysosomal enzyme believed to be synthesized in the granular endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex.
It also contains DNA that controls their replication. Centrosmes are made of microtubules, which seam drinking straws. They are Involved in the movement of chromosome during cell division. When they are beating forms rhythmic movement. They are found in female reproductive organ and upper respiratory tube.
Cancer cells are different. They lack the controlling mechanism. Some of the risk factors for cancer occurrence are radiation, chemicals, extreme pressure and hormonal therapy. Diffusion b. Exocytosis c. Facilitated diffusion d. Active transport e. Endocytosis 2 The most important structural elements of the cyto- skeleton are: - a. Microfilaments b. Vacuoles c. Ribosome d. Asters e. Microtubules 3 Mitochondria functions in the synthesis of a.
DNA b. MRNA c. ATP d. Is the site of ribosomal RNA synthesis b. Has a surrounding structure c. Contains ATP used in chromosome replication d.
It is smaller in secretary cell than in non-secretary. Specifies the chemical structure of enzymes. Endoplasmic reticulum b. Cilia c. Centrioles d. Flagella e. But in multicultural organisms, they do not function in isolation. They work together in-group of similar cells called tissue. Tissue is a group of similar cell and their intercellular substance that have a similar embryological origin and function together to perform a specialized activity.
A science that deals with the study of a tissue is Histology. These are epithelial, connective, muscular, and Nervous tissue. Covering and lining epithelium are classified based on the arrangement of layers and cell shape.
Thus, it lines the air sacs of lung, in kidneys, blood vessels and lymph vessels. It lines the gastro-intestinal tract gall bladder, excretory ducts of many glands. Stratified squamous epithelium is subdivided in to two based on presence of keratin. Non-Keratnized stratified squamous epithelium is found in wet surface that are subjected to considerable wear and tear.
Example: - Mouth, tongue and vagina. In Keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium the surface cell of this type forms a tough layer of material containing keratin. Example: skin. Keratin, is a waterproof protein, resists friction and bacterial invasion. Its main function is secretion. It functions in protection and secretion. Transitional epithelium The distinction is that cells of the outer layer in transitional epithelium tend to be large and rounded rather than flat.
The feature allows the tissue to be stretched with out breakage. A gland may consist of one cell or a group of highly specialized epithelial cell. Glands can be classified into exocrine and endocrine according to where they release their secretion. Their main products are mucous, oil, wax, perspiration and digestive enzyme. Endocrine: They ultimately secret their products into the blood system. The secretions of endocrine glands are always hormones. Hormones are chemicals that regulate various physiological activities.
Classification of exocrine glands They are classified by their structure and shape of the secretary portion. Further more if the duct does not branch it is referred as a simple gland and if it branch's it is compound gland. Mesenchyme is the tissue from which all other connective tissue eventually arises. It is located beneath the skin and along the developing bone of the embryo. Adult connective tissue It is differentiated from mesenchyme and does not change after birth.
Found where there is loose connective tissue. It is common around the kidney, at the base and on the surface of the heart, in the marrow of long bone, as a padding around joints and behind the eye ball. Exists in areas where tensions are exerted in various directions. In areas where fibers are interwoven with out regular orientation the forces exerted are in many directions. This occurs in most fascia like deeper region of dermis, periosteum of bone and membrane capsules.
In other areas dense connective tissue adapted tension in one direction and fibers have parallel arrangement. They stretch and snap back in to original shape. It also forms vocal cord. It helps to form a delicate supporting storma for many organs including liver, spleen and lymph nodes. It also helps to bind together the fibers cells of smooth muscle tissue. It consists of a dense network of collagenous fibers and elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondriotin sulfate.
The strength is because of collagenous fibers. The cells of a matured cartilage are called chondrocyte. The surface of a cartilage is surrounded by irregularly arranged dense connective tissue called perichondrium.
Found at joints over long bones as articlar cartilage and forms costal cartilage at ventral end of ribs. It also forms nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchial tubes. It forms embryonic skeleton, reinforce respiration, aids in free movement of joints and assists rib cage to move during breathing. Fibro cartilage: they are found at the symphysis pubis, in the inter-vertebral discs and knee.
It provides support and protection. Elastic cartilage: in elastic cartilage the chondrocyte are located in thread like network of elastic fibers. Elastic cartilage provides strength and elasticity and maintains the shape of certain organs like epiglottis, larynx, external part of the ear and Eustachian tube. The osseous tissue together with cartilage and joints it comprises the skeletal system. It contains intercellular substance plasma.
Plasma is a straw colored liquid, consists water and dissolved material. The formed elements of the blood are erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes. The fibrous characteristics of a blood revealed when clotted. Classification of muscles is made by structure and function. Muscle tissues are grouped in to skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissue. It is involuntary and non-striated. These are the neurons and the neuroglia. Neurons are nerve cells, sensitive to various stimuli.
It converts stimuli to nerve impulse. Neurons are the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It contains 3 basic portions.
These are cell body, axons and dendrites. Neuroglias are cells that protect, nourish and support neurons. Clinically they are important because they are potential to replicate and produce cancerous growths. They line body cavities, cover surfaces, connect, or separate regions, structures and organs of the body.
The three kinds of membranes are mucous, serous and synovial. It is an epithelial layer. Mucous membranes line the entire gastro intestine, respiratory excretory and reproductive tracts and constitute a lining layer of epithelium. The connective tissue layer of mucous membrane is lamina propra.
It lines body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior. Covers the organs that lie with in the cavity. Serosa is composed of parietal layer pertaining to be outer and visceral layer pertaining to be near to the organ. Pleura and pericardium are serous membrane that line thoracic and heart cavity respectively. The epithelial layer of a serious membrane secret a lubricating fluid called serious fluid. The fluid allows organs to glide one another easily.
Therefore, it is not epithelial membrane. It lines the cavities of the freely movable joints. Like serious membrane it lines structures that do not open to the exterior. Synovial membranes secret synovial fluid that lubricate articular cartilage at the ends of bones as they move at joints.
Unicellular glands composed of columnar cells that secrete mucous are known as:- a Cilia b Microvilli c Goblet cell d Endocrine glands e Basal cell 2. A group of similar cell that has a similar embryological origin and operates together to perform a specialized activity is called:- a Organ b Tissue c System d Organ system e Organism 3.
Which of the following is involuntary and striated? Which tissue is characterized by the presence of cell bodies, dendrites and axons? These include hair, nails, and several types of glands. The system functions in protection, in the regulation of body temperature, in the excretion of waste materials, in the synthesis of vitamin D3 with the help of sunrays, and in the reception of various stimuli perceived as pain, pressure and temperature.
Skin has 3 main parts. These are the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin that is made of stratified squamous epithelium.
It has no blood supply. Epidermis contains strata. These are stratum cornium, lucidium, granulosum, spinosum and basale, Stratum cornium is the outer, dead, flat, Keratinized and thicker layer. Stratum lucidium is next to stratum cornium. It consists of flat, translucent layers of cells.
This stratum found in thick skin only. Stratum granulosum lies just below stratum lucidium. The cells in this layer are in the process of keratinization. The cells in this stratum have a poly-hydral shape and they are in the process of protein synthesis. Stratum basale rests on the basement membrane, and it is the last layer of epidermis next to stratum spinosum.
Stratum basale together with stratum spinosum constitute stratum germinativum. Most part of the skin is composed of dermis.
Dermis contains papillary and reticular layers. Papillary layer is next to stratum basale of the epidermis. It contains loose connective tissue with in the bundles of collagenous fibers. It also contains loose capillaries that nourish the epidermis. Indentations of papillary layer in the palms and soles reflected over the epidermis to create ridges. Reticular layer: next to papillary layer.
It is made of dense connective tissue with course of collagenous fiber bundles that crisscross to form a storma of elastic network. In the reticular layer many blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, fat cell, sebaceous oil glands and hair roots are embedded.
Hypoderms: it is found beneath the dermis. It is a subcutaneous layer under the skin. Hypodermis is composed of loose, fibrous connective tissue, which is richly supplied with lymphatic and blood vessels and nerves. Hypodermis is much thicker than dermis. With in it coils of ducts of sudoriferous sweat glands, and the base of hair follicles. Figure: 4. Protection: against harmful microorganisms, foreign material and it prevents excessive loss of body fluid.
Temperature regulation: with the sweat, heat leaves the body 3. Excretion: Small amount of waste products from the body such as urea 4. Synthesis: By the action of UV. Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin. Vitamin D is necessary for absorption calcium from intestine. Sensory reception: it contains sensory receptors of heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain.
The presence of melanin a dark pigment produced by specialized cell called melanocyte 2. The accumulation of yellow pigment carotene. Eccrine glands are numerous over the palms and soles. Their secretary portion is embedded in the hypodermis.
The sweat they secret is colorless, aqueous fluid containing neutral fats, albumin, urea, lactic acid and sodium chloride. Its excretion helps body temperature to be regulated. Apocrine glands are odiferous, found at the armpits, in the dark region around nipples, the outer lips of the vulva, and the anal and genital regions. They are larger and deeply situate than eccrine sweet glands. An apocrine sweet gland becomes active at puberty. They respond to stress including sexual activity.
The ceruminous glands in the outer ear canal are also apocrine skin glands. Their main functions are lubrication and protection. They are connected to hair follicles and secret oily secretion called sebum. It is a semi fluid substance composed of entirely lipids. It functions as a permeability barrier, an emollient skin softening and a protective a gent against bacteria and fungi. This type of gland found all over the body except in the palms and soles. Acne vulgaris is a condition when there is over secretion of sebum, which may enlarge the gland and plug the pore.
Because it arises from the skin, it is considered an appendage of the skin. It covers the entire body except the palms, soles, lips, tip of penis, inner lips of vulva and nipples.
Hair consist epithelial cell arranged in three layers from the inside out medulla, cortex and cuticle. The bulb is composed of the matrix of epithelial cells. The bulb pushes in ward along its bottom to form a papilla of blood rich connective tissue. Part of the hair follicle is attached with the bundle of smooth muscle about halfway down the follicle. These are arrecter pili muscles. When it contracts in pulls the follicles and its hair to an erect position producing goose bump.
Hair grows and when it finishes its growth sheds. The growth rate of hair depends on its position. Scalp hair grows 0. Hair sheds when it growth is complete. Just before a hair is to be shed, the matrix cell gradually become inactive and eventually dies. They are made of hard keratin. Nails are composed of flat, cornified plates on the dorsal surface of the distal segment of the fingers and toe. The proximal part of nail is lunula, which is white in its color because of the capillaries underneath are covered by thick epithelium.
Nail has body and root. The body is the exposed part and the root is hidden under the skin. The nail ends with a free edge that overhangs the tip of the fingers. Epithelial layer covering underneath of the fore-hang nail is hyponychyem. The nail rests on an epithelial layer of skin called nail bed. The thicker layer of skin beneath the nail root is the matrix, where new cells are generated. Nail grows 0. Thin layers of epidermis called eponychium originally cover the growing nail.
Our nail protects our fingers and toes. It also allows picking up and grasping objects as well we use them to scratch. Which of the following skin layers undergoes cellular regeneration? Sudoriferous glands secret their secretion in response to: a Physiological process b Heat c Stress d Sexual experience e In all of the above condition 5. Hair covers all of the following parts of the body except: - a Sole b Face c Neck d Trunk. It is strong yet light adapted for its function of body protection and motion.
The skeletal system includes bones, joints, cartilages and ligaments. The joint give the body flexibility and allow movements to occur.
But from structural point of view, the human skeletal system consists of two main types of supportive connective tissue, bone and cartilage. Functions of the skeletal system: 1. Support: it forms the internal framework that supports and anchors all soft organs.
Protection: bones protect soft body organs. Movement: skeletal muscles attached to the skeletal system use the bone to levers to move the body and its part. Storage: fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones. Bone it self-serves as a storehouse of minerals.
The most important being calcium and phosphors. Blood cell formation: it occurs with in the marrow cavities of certain bones. Living bone is not dry, brittle or dead. It is a moist changing, productive tissue that is continually resorbed, reformed and remodeled. The most obvious long bones are in the arm and leg. They act as levers that pulled by contraction of muscles. Short bones are about equal in length, width and thickness, which are shaped with regular orientation.
They occur in the wrist and ankle. Flat bones are thin or curved more often they are flat. This includes ribs, scapulae, sternum and bone of cranium. Irregular bones, they do not fit neatly into any other category. Examples are the vertebral, facial, and hipbone. Typical sesamoid bones are patella and pisiform carpal bone, which are in the tendon of quadriceps femuris and flexor carp ulnaris muscle respectively. Accessory bones are most commonly found in the feet. They usually occur in the developing bone and do not fuse completely.
They look like extra bones or broken on X-ray. Sutural wormian bones are examples of accessory bones. Figure: 5. Gross anatomy of a typical long bone You can take Tibia in the leg one of the longest bones in the body. In adults it have: Diaphis, the tubular shaft, hallow cylindrical with walls of compact bone tissue. The center of the cylinder is the medullary cavity, which is filled with marrow.
Epiphysis is roughly spherical end of the bone. It is wider than the shaft. Flat and irregular bones of the trunk and limbs have many epiphysis and the Figure: 5. It is made up of epiphyseal plate and adjacent bony trabeculae of cancellous bone tissue.
The red marrow also known as myeloid tissue Endosteum is the lining the medullary cavity of compact bone tissue and covering the trabeculae of spongy bone tissue. Periosteum: it is covering the outer surface of the bone. It is absent at joints and replaced by articular cartilage. A network of collagenous fibers in the matrix gives bone tissue its strength and flexibility. Most bones have an outer sheet of compact bone tissue enclosing an interior spongy bone tissue.
It is very hard and dense. It appears to naked eye to be solid but not. Compact bone tissue contains cylinders of calcified bone known as osteons Haversion system. Osteons are made up of concentric layers called lamellae, which are arranged seemingly in wider and wider drinking straws. In the center of the osteons are central canals haversion canal , which are longitudinal canals that contains blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels.
Lacunae Little spaces that houses osteocytes bone cells are contained in lamella. Radiating from each lacuna are tiny canaliculi containing the slender extensions of the osteocytes where nutrients and wastes can pass to and from central canal. Spongy cancellous Bone tissue Is in the form of an open interlaced pattern that withstands maximum stress and supports in shifting stress.
Trabeculae are tiny spikes of bone tissue surrounded by bone matrix that has calcified. They found mostly in the deepest layer of periosteum and endosteum. They have high mitotic potential and can be transformed into bone forming cells osteoblasts. They have a cell body that occupies a lacuna. Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts. They together with osteoclasts play an important role of homeostasis by helping to release calcium. Osteoclasts are derived from white blood cells called monocytes.
They are believed to be derived from osteoblast that ceases their physiological activity. Bone in embryo develops in two ways: Intra-membranous ossification, If bone develops directly from mesenchymal tissue.
Examples are vault of the skull, flat bones and part of the clavicle. In this type of ossification development continues rapidly from the center. Endochondrial Ossification, When bone tissue develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. Endochondrial ossification produces long bones and all other bones not formed by intra-membranous ossification. Table 5. Depression and openings Fissure narrow, cleft like opening between adjacent parts of bone. Example: Supra of orbital fissure.
Foramen, a bigger, round opening. Example: Foramen magnum. Meatus: a relatively narrow tubular canal. Example: External auditory meatus Groves and sulcus: are deep furrow on the surface of a bone or other structure. Example: Inter-vertebral and radial groves of humers. Fossa: shallow depressed area. Example: Mandibular fossa. Example Medial condyle of femur Head, expanded, rounded surface at proximal end of a bone often joined to shaft by a narrowed neck. Example: Head of femur Facet: small, flat surface.
Example: Articular facet of ribs. Example: Greater tubercle of humerus. Tuberosity: it is large, round roughened process. Example: ischeal tuberosity. Trochanter: it is a large, blunt projection found only on femur Crest is a prominent ridge. Example: Iliac crest. Line: it is a less prominent ridge than a crest. Spinous process spine is a sharp, slender process. Example Ischeal spin Epicondyle is a prominence above condyle. Example medial Epicondyle of Femur 5.
These are the axial and appendicular skeleton. The Axial skeleton consist bones that lie around the axis. And the appendicular skeleton consist bones of the body out of the axial group. These are appendages. Technically, the hyoid bone is not part of the skull. Technically, the term arm refers to the upper extremity between the shoulder and elbow; the forearm is between the elbow and wrist. The upper part of the lower extremity, between the pelvis and knee, is the thigh; the leg is between the knees an ankle.
The skull rests on the superior of vertebral column. It is composed of cranial and facial bones. Made up of horizontal, cribriform plate, median perpendicular plate, paired lateral masses; contains ethmoidal sinuses, crista galli, superior and middle conchae. Forms roof of nasal cavity and septum, part of cranium floor; site of attachment for membranes covering brain.
Frontal 1 Anterior and superior parts of cranium, forehead, brow areas. Shaped like large scoop; frontal squama forms forehead; orbital plate forms roof of orbit; supraorbital ridge forms brow ridge; contains frontal sinuses, supraorbital foramen. Protects front of brain; contains passageway for nerves, blood vessels. Occipital 1 Posterior part of cranium, including base. Slightly curved plate, With turned- up edges; made up of squamous, base, and two lateral parts; contains foramen magnum, occipital condyles, hypo-glossal canals, atlanto-occipital joint, external occipital crest and protuberance.
Protects posterior part of brain; forms foramina for spinal cord and nerves; site of attachment for muscles, ligaments. Parietal 2 Superior sides and roof of cranium, between frontal and occipital bones. Broad, slightly convex plates; smooth exteriors and internal depressions. Protect top, sides of brain, passageway for blood vessels. Sphenoid 1 Base of cranium, anterior to occipital and temporal bones. Temporal 2 Sides and base of cranium at temples.
Made up of squamous, petrous, tympanic, mastoid areas; contain zygomatic process, mandibular fossa, ear Ossicles, mastoid sinuses. Form temples, part of cheekbones; articulate with lower jaw; protect ear ossicles; site of attachments for neck muscles. There are four main sutures in the skull. Fontanels The skeleton of a newly formed embryo consist cartilage or fibrous membrane structures, which gradually replaced by bone the process is called ossification.
At birth membrane filled spaces on the skull are called fontanel. They are found between cranial bones. It closes 18 to 24 months after birth. It is also diamond shaped but smaller than the anterior fontanel.
It closes 2 months after birth. Found at the junction of parietal, occiputal and temporal bones. They are irregular in shape and begin to close at 1 or 2 months after birth and completed by 12 months.
Thin, cancellous, shaped like curved leaves. Lacrimal 2 Medial wall of orbit, behind frontal process of maxilla. Small, thin, rectangular; contains depression for lacrimal sacs, nasolacrimal tear duct. Mandible 1 Lower jaw, extending from chin to mandibular fossa of temporal bone. Largest, strongest facial bone; horseshoe-shaped horizontal bony with two perpendicular rami; contains tooth sockets, coronoid, condylar, alveolar processes, mental foramina. Maxillae 2 Upper jaw and anterior part of hard palate.
Made up of zygomatic, frontal, palatine, alveolar processes; contain infraorbital foramina, maxillary sinuses, tooth sockets. Form upper jaw, front of hard palate, part of eye sockets. Small, oblong; attached to a nasal cartilage. Form supports for bridge of upper nose. Palatine 2 Posterior part of hard palate, floor of nasal cavity and orbit; posterior to maxillae.
L-shaped, with horizontal and vertical plates; contain greater and lesser palatine foramina. Horizontal plate forms posterior part of hard palate; vertical plate forms part of wall of nasal cavity, floor of orbit.
Vomer 1 Posterior and inferior part of nasal septum. Thin, shaped like plowshare. Forms posterior and inferior nasal septum dividing nasal cavities. Zygomatic 2 Cheekbones below and lateral to orbit. Curved lateral part of molar cheekbones; made up of temporal process, zygomatic arch; contain zygomatico-facial and zygomatico-temporal foramina.
Hyoid 1 Below root of tongue, above larynx. U-shaped, suspended from styloid process of temporal bone; site of attachment for some muscles used in speaking, swallowing. Ossicles of ear Inside cavity of petrous portion of temporal bone. Convey sound vibrations stapes 2 from eardrum to oval window see Chapter It is formed by bones of the skull. In the orbit there are openings that pass structures.
Some of the principal openings and And the structures passing through are: Optic foramen canal passes optic nerve Superior orbital fissure passes supra orbit nerve and artery. Inferior orbital fissure passes maxillary branch of trigeminal and zygomatic nerve and infra orbital vessel. Supra orbital foramen notch passes occulomotor, trochlear, ophthalmic branch of trigeminal and abducent nerves.
Canal for naso lacrimal duct passes naso lacrimal duct. The adult vertebral column contains 26 vertebras. They are fibro-cartilaginous. Each disc is composed of the outer fibrous ring consisting fibro-cartilage called annulus fibrosis and the inner soft, pulpy highly elastic structure called the nucleus pulpous.
The disc permits various movement of the vertebral column, absorb shock and form a strong joint. These are normal curves of the vertebral column. There are 4 normal curves formed by vertebras, two are concave and the other two are convex. In the age of the fetus there is only a single anterior concave curve, but approximately the third post natal month, when the child begin to hold head erect, the cervical curve develops.
Later when the child sits up, stands and walks the lumbar curve develops. The thoracic and sacral curves are anteriorly concave, since they retain the anterior concavity of the fetal curve they are referred primary curves. The vertebral column and vertebral curves source: Carola, R. It consist the body, vertebral arch and seven processes. The body Centrum , thick, disc shaped, anterior part. It has superior and inferior roughened area for attachment with intervertebral discs.
The vertebral neural arch extends posterior from the body of the vertebrae. With the body it surrounds the spinal cord. It is formed by two short, thick process called pedicles. It projects posteriorly to meet at laminae. The laminae are flat parts that join to form the posterior portion of the vertebral arch. The space that lies between the vertebral arch and body contains the spinal cord called vertebral foramina. The vertebral foramina of all vertebras together form the vertebral spinal canal.
Intervertibral foramen is an opening between the vertebras that serves as passage of nerves that come out of spinal cord to supply the various body parts. There are seven processes that arise from the vertebral arch at the point where the lamina and pedicle joins.
The remaining four processes form joints with other vertebra. Two of them articulate with the immediate superior vertebra. And the other two articulate with the immediate inferior vertebra. Atlas supports head, permits "yes" motion of head at joint between skull and atlas; axis Permits "no" motion at joint between axis and atlas.
Thoracic vertebrae 12 Bodies and transverse processes have facets that articulate T1-T12 with ribs; laminae are short, thick, and broad. Articulate with ribs; allow some movement of spine in thoracic area. Lumbar vertebrae 5 Largest, strongest vertebrae; adapted for attachment of back L1-L5 muscles.
Support back mus cles; allow forward and backward bending of spine. Sacrum Wedge-shaped, made up of five fused bodies united by four 5 fused bones intervertebral disks. Support vertebral column; give strength and stability to pelvis. Coccyx Triangular tailbone, united with sacrum by intervertebral 3 to 5 fused bones disk.
Vestige of an embryonic tail. Thorax is a bony cage formed by sternum breast bone , costal cartilage, ribs and bodies of the thoracic vertebra. The junction of the manubrium and the body forms the sternal angle. The manubrium on its superior portion has a depression called jugular supra sternal notch. The manubrium also articulates with the 1st and 2nd rib. The body of the sternum articulates directly or indirectly with 2nd to 10th rib. The xiphoid process consists hyaline cartilage during infancy and child hood and do not ossify completely up to the age of Ribs increase in length from 1st through 7th and they decrease in length through 12th.
Each ribs posteriorly articulates with the body of its corresponding thoracic vertebra. Anteriorly the 1st seven ribs have direct attachment to sternum by costal cartilage hence they are called true vertebro — sternal ribs. The remaining 5 ribs are called false ribs. The 8th — 10th ribs, which are groups of the false ribs are called vertebro chondrial ribs because their cartilage attach one another and then attaches to the cartilage of the 7th rib. Although there is variation when we examine a typical rib 3rd to 9th contains a head, neck and body parts.
The Head is a projection at posterior end of the rib. It consist one or two facet that articulate with facet of the vertebra. The neck is constricted portion just lateral to the head. The body shaft is main part of the rib. The costal angle is the site where the rib changes its direction.
The inner side of the costal angle is costal grove. Where thoracic nerves and blood vessels are protected. Connected and supported by the axial skeleton with only shoulder joint and many muscle from a complex of suspension bands from the vertebral column, ribs and sternum to the shoulder girdle.
Holds shoulder joint and arm away from thorax so upper limb can swing freely. Scapula 2 Shoulder blade; flat, triangular bone with horizontal spine separating fossae. Site of attachment for muscles of arm and chest.
Arm Humerus 2 Longest, largest bone of upper limb; forms ball of ball- and socket joint with glenoid fossa of scapula. Site of attachment for muscles of shoulder and arm, permitting arm to flex and extend at elbow. Forearm Radius 2 Larger of two bones in forearm; large proximal end consists of olecranon process prominence of elbow. Forms hinge joint at elbow. Wrist Carpals 16 Small short bones; in each wrist, 8 carpals in 2 transverse rows of 4.
With attached ligaments, allow slight gliding movement. Hands and Fingers Metacarpals 10 Five miniature long bones in each hand in fanlike arrangement; articulate with fingers at metacarpo- phalangeal joint the Knuckle. Aid opposition movement of thumb; enable cupping of hand. Allow fingers to participate in stable grips.
The lower extremity is connected to the axial skeleton with the hip girdle. Site of attachment for trunk and lower limb muscles; transmits body weight to femur.
Thigh Femur 2 Thighbone; typical long bone; longest, strongest, heaviest bone; forms ball of ball-and-socket joint with pelvic bones; provides articular surface for knee. Supports body.
Patella 2 Kneecap; sesamoid bone within quadriceps femuris tendon. Increases leverage for quadriceps muscle by keeping tendon Away from axis of rotation. Leg Fibula 2 Smaller long bone of lower leg; articulates proximally with tibia and distally with talus. Bears little body weight, but gives strength to ankle joint. Tibia 2 Larger long bone of lower leg; articulates with femur fibula, talus.
Supports body weight, transmitting it from femur to talus. Ankle Tarsals 14 Ankle, heel bones; short bones; 7 in each ankle including talus, calcaneus, cuboid, navicular, 3 cuneiforms; with metatarsals, form arches of foot. Bear body weight; raise body and transmit thrust during running and walking. Foot and Toes Metatarsals 10 Miniature long bones; 5 in each foot; form sole; with tarsal, form arches of feet.
Improve stability while standing; absorb shocks; bear weight; aid in locomotion. Provide stability during locomotion. Source: Elaine n. Beside its function of absorbing shock it prevents nerves and blood vessels in the sole of the foot from being crushed.
But movable joints provide the mechanism that allows the body to move. According to functional classification joints may be immovable synartherosis , slightly movable amphiartherosis and freely movable diarthrosis.
The main function of the skeletal system is: a Protection b Storage of minerals c Support d Producing motion e All of the above 2. Which of the following is not part of the appendicular skeleton?
The muscular system, however, refers to the skeletal muscle system: the skeletal muscle tissue and connective tissues that makeup individual muscle organs, such as the biceps brachii muscle. Cardiac muscle tissue is located in the heart and is therefore considered part of the cardiovascular system. Smooth muscle tissue of the intestines is part of the digestive system, whereas smooth muscle tissue of the urinary bladder is part of the urinary system and so on.
In this chapter, we discuss only the muscular system. Functions of muscle tissue Through sustained contraction or alternating contraction and relaxation, muscle tissue has three key functions: producing motion, providing stabilization, and generating heat. Motion: Motion is obvious in movements such as walking and running, and in localized movements, such as grasping a pencil or nodding the head. These movements rely on the integrated functioning of bones, joints, and skeletal muscles. Stabilizing body positions and regulating the volume of cavities in the body: Besides producing movements, skeletal muscle contractions maintain the body in stable positions, such as standing or sitting.
Postural muscles display sustained contractions when a person is awake, for example, partially contracted neck muscles hold the head upright. In addition, the volumes of the body cavities are regulated through the contractions of skeletal muscles.
For example muscles of respiration regulate the volume of the thoracic cavity during the process of breathing. Thermo genesis generation of heat.
As skeletal muscle contracts to perform work, a by-product is heat. Physiologic Characteristics of muscle tissue Muscle tissue has four principal characteristics that enable it to carry out its functions and thus contribute to homeostasis. Excitability irritability , a property of both muscle and nerve cells neurons , is the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signal called action potentials impulses.
For example, the stimuli that trigger action potentials are chemicals-neurotransmitters, released by neurons, hormones distributed by the blood. Contractility is the ability of muscle tissue to shorten and thicken contract , thus generating force to do work. Muscles contract in response to one or more muscle action potentials. Extensibility means that the muscle can be extended stretched without damaging the tissue. Most skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing pairs. While one is contracting, the other not only relaxed but also usually is being stretched.
Elasticity means that muscle tissue tends to return to its original shape after contraction or extension. Connective Tissue Component A skeletal muscle is an organ composed mainly of striated muscle cells and connective tissue. Each skeletal muscle has two parts; the connective tissue sheath that extend to form specialized structures that aid in attaching the muscle to bone and the fleshy part the belly or gaster.
The extended specialized structure may take the form of a cord, called a tendon; alternatively, a broad sheet called an aponeurosis may attach muscles to bones or to other muscles, as in the abdomen or across the top of the skull. A connective tissue sheath called facia surrounds and separates muscles Figure Connective tissue also extends into the muscle and divides it into numerous muscle bundles fascicles. There are three connective tissue components that cover a skeletal muscle tissue.
Also you would have to learn the name of structures that are related to it means the nearly by muscles, bone etc like which structure lies to its lateral, medial, anterior and posterior surfaces. But the problem is that, after reading all the books and using atlas you would still forget many things like branches of artery, nerve, features of some diseases etc.
For this purposes mnemonics are life saving. After learning some interesting mnemonics, you would never forget these structures and their sequence. Therefore we are presenting a great book or you can say collection of anatomy mnemonics in pdf format. You can download this anatomy mnemonics pdf below using the download button, but first lets check out some of the features of this collection.
Anatomy Mnemonics pdf Features: Here are some of the features of this anatomy mnemonics collection pdf file: There are hundreds of anatomy mnemonics. You can search any anatomy mnemonic. There are mnemonics for different arteries branches. There are mnemonics for nerves and their branches.
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